Semantic structure and syntactic characteristics of the verbs of saying "say", "tell", "speak" and "talk" (based on example from the novel "Theatre" by W. S. Maugham).
1. The verbs "say" and "tell"
Webster`s New World Dictionary (3rd College Edition) gives eight meanings for "to say" as a transitive verb and one meaning as intransitive. Among them are: to utter, to pronounce, speak; to express in words; to declare, tell; to state; to indicate or show; to recite, repeat; to estimate; to make a statement, speak; express an opinion, etc. (Webster, 1988, p.1195).
As to the verb "tell", ten meaning are given for it as a transitive verb and four meanings as transitive. Among them are: to give an account of ( a story, etc.) in speech or writing; to express in words, utter, say; to report, announce; to reveal, disclose, make known; to give evidence; to carry tales, reveal secrets, etc. (ibid., p.1376).
Collins Dictionary of the English Language gives sixteen meanings for the verb "say" ( to speak"; pronounce, utter, etc.) including seven collocations ( I say; that is to say; to say nothing of; to say the least, etc.). Sixteen meanings are given with the verb "tell" (to let know, to order; to give an account of…., to disclose, etc) including some collocations ( to tell the truth; to tell the time; to tell apart, etc.). (Collins, 1986, pp. 1361, 1567).
In Webster`s New World Dictionary, "speak" is given as having six meanings as a transitive verb and seven meanings as intransitive. Among them are: to utter, to talk, express oneself; to address one`s remarks; to appeal, to make a request, etc. (Webster, 1988, p. 1288). "Talk" is given as having eight meanings as a transitive verb and eight meanings as intransitive. Among them are: to utter, to discuss, to communicate, speak; to lecture, etc. (ibid., p. 1365).
Even comparing these two dictionaries, we see that whereas "say" and "tell" are given as synonyms in Webster`s classification, in Collins Dictionary we don`t find this. On the other hand, in different classifications the same meanings sometimes recur under different names.
So we can observe certain diversity in the classification of the verbs of saying in various dictionaries, but we also see and know that these verbs are very frequently used in the English language, are repeatedly mentioned in all kinds of grammars and textbooks, where appropriate, in scientific texts, etc., and are regarded by most authors as the verbs of the first class. (See, for example, R. Quirk et.al., A. Grammar of Contemporary English).
"To say" means to express in words; to utter; to pronounce; to state, declare; to make known; to make a statement. "Say" is the least formal; it may refer either to speech or writing.
"To tell" is to inform a person of something or make him do something; to put into spoken or written words; communicate events or circumstances, etc.
"To say" and "tell" are both the ordinary actions of people in their daily intercourse, but "say" is more partial, it may comprehend single unconnected sentences or even single words: we may say "yes" or "no", but we tell something which is connected and which forms more or less of a narrative.
For my analysis, I have chosen the synthetic approach, classifying the data according to their meaning and analyzing different uses of the two verbs, which will be illustrated further by examples.
The first general remark is that "say" is much more frequently used than "tell". Both "say" and "tell" introduce direct and reported speech. On the basis of examples analysed and cited from the novel "Theatre" by W. S. Maugham, I can present the following table ( the meanings being common to both verbs: "put into speech", "make known" and "command"). The ratio is 79:49.
|
Direct speech |
Reported speech |
Without inder.obj. |
With inder.obj. |
|
|
To say |
22 |
6 |
67 |
12 |
|
To tell |
5 |
26 |
13 |
36 |
To the other specific cases belong the following:
1. "To tell" is used with an indirect object far more frequently than "to say". "To tell" is rarely followed by a direct object. The following examples illustrate the most frequent uses, i.e. "say" without an indirect object and "tell" with an indirect object.
"You`re more lovely than ever", she said. (S.Maugham. "Theatre".).
"Ask her yourself then, "said Julia impatiently. (ibid.).
He told her the gossip of the town. (ibid.).
"I tell you, I`m not going to." (ibid.)
"Father told me you were very ladylike, and not a bit like an actress, and mother said you`re so sensible." (ibid.).
"To tell you the truth, I was enjoying myself." (ibid.).
"Don`t be natural", he told his company. (ibid.).
"I hope you`ll have enough to eat", said Julia. (ibid.)
However, "to tell" is used without an indirect object when it has the meaning "narrate": e.g. "Michael stared at them for a moment as though he could not quite tell what they were…." (ibid.).
2. The syntax is usually different when the indirect object is mentioned. The construction with a prepositional object introduced by "to" is usually possible after "to say" and is very rare after "to tell". Cf. "Well, I`ll tell you what I said to the little bird", Michael broke in. (ibid.).
She decided to say nothing to Michael. (ibid.).
"Of course he likes me", she said to herself. (ibid.).
She wondered what he would say to her. (ibid.).
Tell that to the marines. (proverb).
3. As was shown in the examples above, the frequency ratio of direct and reported speech after "to say" and "to tell" is high. "To say" is frequently used not only to introduce direct speech, but also to introduce the actual words spoken, for instance, in the well-known collocations: "say goodbye", "say good morning", "say yes (no)", etc.
"Very well. Then I`ll say good night to you." (ibid.).
A pair of young things who had been dancing came up to their table to say how do you do to her. (ibid.).
She said good-bye to her mother and aunt Cartier.
…I asked them if they were going to exercise their opinion and they said no, not at any price. (ibid.)
…She wanted to say yes. (ibid.).
4. While introducing reported speech, "say" is mainly used to introduce a statementor when the speaker expresses his own opinion; "tell" involves the notion of communication.
E.g……a minute or two later Mrs. Gosselyn said she must go and see the cook. (S. Maugham. "Theatre")
He said they couldn`t afford to let sentiment stand in the way of business. (ibid.).
They told her now that she must never tell Tom she loved him. (ibid.).
The conversation thus started; he told her that he was an attaché at the Spanish Embassy in Paris. (ibid.).
5. The indirect object inversion is most often applied after "tell". Cf. "You don`t have to tell me that", he said. (ibid.).
Do not tell this to Fred.
6. Both verbs may be used in the passive, but only the direct object of "to say" may become the subject in the passive whereas either the direct and the indirect object of " to tell" may become the subject in the passive. Cf. ….I may be an actor, but when all`s said and done I am a gentleman… (ibid.).
I`m told she is rather good… He did as he was told. (ibid.).
7. A great variety of nouns are found after "to tell": facts, a story, the time, news, a lie, a tale, an anecdote, reasons; "to say" is collocated with a limited number of nouns, such as: a word. A sentence, a thing. As to pronouns, the same pronouns may be found after both verbs, such as: this, that, it, anything.
E.g. Then he made some remark that led her to speak of "Nowadays". She told him its story… (ibid.).
Naturally we don`t want you to tell a lie…" (ibid.).
"I`ll tell you, I`ll buy you out." (ibid.).
He always said the same things and you knew exactly what to answer. (ibid.).
She said the words very brightly so that they sounded polite… (ibid.)
8. The direct object may be omitted after both verbs.
E.g. "Who told Michel?" - "He won`t say." (ibid.)
No one could tell what might happen if she told the truth. (ibid.)
9. "To say" and "to tell" can be followed by a prepositional object introduced by "about" or "of", but the frequency rate of this construction is low for both verbs.
E.g. Mrs. Gosselyn told her about India, how strange it was to have all those colored servants, but how nice the society was… (S.Maugham. "Theatre")
She was surprised, for he had said nothing about it
10. "To tell", when followed by a "to" infinitive, is frequently used in the meaning "command" or "order", which may also be the case with "to say", though rare. "I`ve told him to come up as soon as he`s ready.(ibid.).
E.g. "Oh, God, if I could only tell him to go to hell." (ibid.)
"But I told you to go." (ibid.)
"Tell her not to disturb us." (ibid.)
She said to follow her. (ibid.)
11. The use of "can" in interrogative and negative sentences suggests the meaning "know" or "tell correctly" with both verbs, especially with the verb "to tell".
E.g. Michael stared at them gravely for a moment as though he could not quite tell what they were… (ibid.)
Julia could not tell if he knew that she was in love with him. (ibid.)
12. Both verbs are most often followed by object clauses. The object clause may be a statement or an interrogative object clause.
E.g. "Oh, it`s no good saying you didn`t mean it." (ibid.)
"Well, if I behaved like that people`d say I had been drinking." (ibid.)
He told her that she was the only woman he had ever loved… (ibid.)
"I`m waiting for you to tell me what you`ve got against me, "she said at last in a low voice. (ibid.)
13. Both verbs can occur without any object at all. Typical examples are the phrases: "You never can tell", "…I dare say".
14. Contextual determination is repeatedly brought forward by means of different adverbs, chiefly after "to say", though "to tell" may be used in the same way.
E.g. "I swear it`s the truth". "Prove it then", she said violently. (ibid.)
"You`re hard", she said plaintively. (ibid.)
"Of course he`s young", she said hopefully. (ibid.)
"Idiots!" she said to herself crossly. (ibid.)
"I believe you`re prouder of your family than of looking like a Greek God", she told him fondly. (ibid.)
15. "To say" often occurs in the meaning "pronounce, recite".
E.g. He was easy enough in ordinary dialogue and could say his lines with points… (S.Maugham".)
He always said the same things and you knew exactly what to answer. (ibid.)
16. The meaning "to find it possible" or "to be bold enough to do something" is frequently rendered by means of "dare say".
E.g. "I dare say I can afford to lose my money better than you can." (ibid.)
"If you are very nice to Julia I dare say she`ll give you a photograph of herself when you go."(ibid.)
17. A specific meaning of "tell" is found in "tell the truth".
E.g. No one could tell what might happen if she told the truth. (ibid.)
"To tell you the truth, I think it`s rather disgusting." (ibid.)
"Tell" can also impart the meaning "have an influence on".
E.g. "If Julia`s gadding about all night it must tell on her performances." (ibid.)
18. "People say…", "They say".
E.g. "Of course America is expensive, but I ought to be able to live on fifty dollars a week at the outside, they say the Americans are awfully hospitable…" (ibid.)
"They say acting is only make-believe." (ibid.)
19. A specific meaning of "say" is found in "what is to say", "in other words", e.g. They kept the date and place of their departure secret, that is to say, the Press representative of the theatre had only rung up a very few newspapers… (ibid.)